History
The introduction of the terms "philosopher"
and "philosophy" has been ascribed to the Greek
thinker
Pythagoras (see
Diogenes Laertius: "De vita et moribus
philosophorum", I, 12;
Cicero: "Tusculanae disputationes", V, 8-9).
The ascription is based on a passage in a lost
work of Herakleides Pontikos, a disciple of
Aristotle. It is considered to be part of
the widespread legends of Pythagoras of this
time. "Philosopher" replaced the word "sophist"
(from sophoi), which was used to describe
"wise men," teachers of
rhetoric, who were important in
Athenian democracy.
The history of philosophy is customarily
divided into six periods:
Ancient philosophy,
Medieval philosophy,
Renaissance philosophy, Early and Late
Modern philosophy and
Contemporary philosophy.
Ancient philosophy
(c. 600 B.C.–c. A.D. 500)
Ancient philosophy is the philosophy of the
Graeco-Roman world from the sixth century [circa
585] B.C. to the fourth century A.D. It is
usually divided into four periods: the
pre-Socratic period, the periods of
Plato and
Aristotle, and the post-Aristotelian (or
Hellenistic) period. Sometimes a fifth
period is added that includes the
Christian and
Neo-Platonist philosophers. The most
important of the ancient philosophers (in terms
of subsequent influence) are Plato and Aristotle[7].
The themes of ancient philosophy are:
understanding the fundamental causes and
principles of the
universe; explaining it in an economical and
uniform way; the epistemological problem of
reconciling the diversity and change of the
natural universe, with the possibility of
obtaining fixed and certain knowledge about it;
questions about things which cannot be perceived
by the senses, such as
numbers,
elements,
universals, and
gods; the analysis of patterns of
reasoning and argument; the nature of
the good life and the importance of
understanding and knowledge in order to pursue
it; the explication of the concept of
justice, and its relation to various
political systems[8].
In this period the crucial features of the
philosophical method were established: a
critical approach to received or established
views, and the appeal to reason and
argumentation.
Medieval
philosophy (c. A.D. 500–c. 1350)
Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of
Western Europe and the
Middle East during what is now known as the
medieval era or the
Middle Ages, roughly extending from the fall
of the
Roman Empire to the
Renaissance. Medieval philosophy is defined
partly by the rediscovery and further
development of classical
Greek and
Hellenistic philosophy, and partly by the
need to address theological problems and to
integrate sacred doctrine (in
Islam,
Judaism and
Christianity) with
secular learning.
Some problems discussed throughout this
period are the relation of
faith to
reason, the existence and unity of
God, the object of
theology and
metaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of
universals, and of individuation.
Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the
Muslim philosophers
Alkindus,
Alfarabi,
Alhazen,
Avicenna,
Algazel,
Avempace,
Abubacer and
Averroes; the Jewish philosophers
Maimonides and
Gersonides; and the Christian philosophers
Anselm,
Peter Abelard,
Roger Bacon,
Thomas Aquinas,
Duns Scotus,
William of Ockham and
Jean Buridan.
